WEAPONS TO CONFLICTS

Warfare is traditionally an essential part of Turkana life and the principal occupation of young men. Weapons are considered a man’s proud possessions and the practical tool for increasing herds by raiding and for expanding their territory. Ever since they entered Kenya, the Turkana have been in a perpetual process of expansion. Previously settled tribes such as the Samburu, Pokot, Donyiro, Toposa and Karamojong were forced out of their territory by belligerent Turkana warriors (Gulliver, 1951: 143). No administration has ever able completely to contain the Turkana and put an end to these conflicts. These common age-old pursuits still trouble independent Kenya.

Turkana believe that all livestock on earth, including that owned by other people, is theirs by right, and that there is nothing wrong in going after it and taking it by force. A young man, they say, must be prepared to die in pursuit of stock (Soper, 1985: 106). Meanwhile neighbouring tribes feel the same way about stock and raid the Turkana. After such raids the Turkana feel compelled to recover their stolen animals. This creates a vicious circle of conflicts and banditry which seems to find no solution even at government level. To make matters worse, raiding parties called ngoroko are now stealing stock from their own people, instilling fear in almost every homestead in the region. Armed with modern automatic weapons, the ngoroko raid for the sheer excitement or out of necessity to stave off the spectre of starvation.

Victorious raids have shaped and indeed still shape the emotional and social attitudes of the Turkana. The subject of war is on everybody’s lips. It is ingrained in them: the Turkana are constantly on their guard and the continuing hostilities along the Ugandan, Sudanese and Ethiopian borders keep the topic very much alive.

Traditionally, in the past war leaders were never officially appointed. Instead men with outstanding personality, ability and courage came to be recognized as such by their fellow tribesmen (Gulliver, 1951: 144). Raids were either carried out by a small-scale marauding force or as a large-scale attack involving different columns and possibly an alliance with another tribe (Gulliver, 1951: 79). Men were called to arms and, on large-scale raids, usually sought the blessing of a diviner who may have had favourable dreams of large numbers of accessible cattle in a certain area. Participation was generally confined to initiated men, although youths were on some occasions taken along as drovers.

Feasting and dancing invariably preceded raids with the akinyak (male age-set dance) (Pavitt, 1997: 122). Dancing plays a very important part in Turkana community life and will be further dealt with in the chapter dedicated to “Music, Dance and Recreation.” The diviner would usually conduct a special purification ceremony to allay people’s fears, and assure the warriors of strength and invincibility. At the end of the purification ceremony, the men were smeared with white clay from head to foot (Gulliver, 1951: 146).

Raids usually took place at dawn. The raiders would silently creep up on their enemy, spreading out as they approached, and at a given signal would rush in, closing and encircling their objective. While one group rounded up the cattle and drove them away, the other engaged in close-combat fighting. Defenders were slain and young girls and boys were sometimes taken captive and later adopted as family members (Gulliver, 1951: 149). Anything that could be stolen from the enemy, such as grain, ornaments etc. was also brought back by the raiding force.

When they were well clear of enemy territory, all captured cattle would be rounded up and at a signal all would rush to obtain a share of the prized booty. The animals a man managed to brand were thereafter looked upon as his, although he was expected to give freely to his immediate and extended family members (Gulliver, 1951: 147). The diviner was always rewarded with stock for the part he had played in selecting a fortunate area.

The ornate arsenals of the Turkana include a relatively wide variety of weapons. Until the advent of modern firearms, traditional Turkana men used to carry spears (akwara) with a small narrow blade, a fighting stick or knobkerrie (aselej or esebo) and a narrow shield (aupwal) made out of the hide of either a giraffe or buffalo. For close combat fighting they wore a circular wrist knife (abarait) and one or two finger knives (egolu) and finger hooks (ecorogat) which were designed to gouge out an enemy’s eyes.

Fighting sticks, knobkerries, wrist knives and finger hooks are the most decorated weapons among the Turkana. Contrary to other pastoralist societies in Africa, where decorative elements usually embody a metaphysical significance, amongst the Turkana, the incision of decorations would appear to have merely an aesthetic value. Indeed for the Turkana, it is the utilitarian quality of the weapons which counts, their usefulness in raiding and repelling raids (Fedders & Salvadori, 1977).

Turkana word: barait (a- nga) pl. ngabara

Phonetic transcription: abaraIt ; Nabara

Grammatical category: n.fem.

English equivalent: wrist knife

Wrist knives are produced by Turkana men or by the metal smiths (eketiakan) from pieces of iron or steel wire, beaten into shape with the help of a stone (a hammer is nowadays used) (Best 1993).

Wrist knives consist of a metal blade with pieces of cow or donkey hide on the inner and outer edges (akuroru) as protection from injuring oneself. The outer protective sheath has metal beads (ngidany) on the ends to secure the leather strap.

Wrist knives have different uses. They may be used as a close combat weapon or a tool with which to cut meat or carve various wooden items. They are worn exclusively by Turkana men as an ornament on the right hand.

Wrist knives are widely distributed throughout the Nilotic tribes. Also known as fighting bracelets among the Dinka, these weapons were produced by metal smiths and were frequently worn as an ornament by both men and women of this tribe.

The type used by the Turkana is the wrist type (Lindblom 1927:6 as quoted in Ocholla-Ayayo 1980), and is similar to that which Wood (1874) described as having a sharp edge used to strike the face or body of an enemy at close quarters. Lindblom considered the Turkana type to be limited to Nilotic and Nilo-Hamitic peoples, and among the majority of these tribes type two is prevalent (Ocholla-Ayayo 1980:106). Type two is the wrist knife, found among the Turkana, Suk, Karamojong and Lango among others.

Turkana word:bela (e-ngi) pl. ngibelae

Phonetic transcription: EbEla ; =IbElaI

Grammatical category: n.masc.

English equivalent: married woman’s walking stick

The ebela stick is carved from the wood of the ekali (Grewia bicolor) tree. Men carve this stick using either a wrist knife or a spear. The ebela is given to a woman during the akinyonyo (clothing of the bride) rite. This stick is very similar to the men’s aburo stick although much thinner and lighter in weight.

Turkana word: buro (a- nga) pl. ngaburoi

Phonetic transcription: aburo; Naburoi

Grammatical category: n.fem.

English equivalent: (general name for) walking stick

Aburo is the general Turkana name for a walking stick. It is carved from the wood of the edome (Cordia sinensis) tree. The sticks can be carved into different shapes and consequently take on different names. For example the aburo nakodos a akuo (lit. a stick with a bent head) is also carved from the edome tree and resembles the ebela stick used by women. This kind of stick is used for walking, although it is also very commonly used as a fighting weapon.

The aburo na dapal a akou (lit. a stick with a broad head) is carved from the wood of the edome (Cordia sinensis) tree and as the name suggests it has a rather broad rounded or square end to it. A spear (akwara) or alternatively a wrist knife (abarait) is used to carve this stick. It is used either as a walking stick or as a fighting stick.

Walking sticks are carried by almost every traveller and even children and non-initiated youths carry a stick with them to protect themselves and their animals.

Turkana word: cipet (e- ngi) pl. ngicipeta

Phonetic transcription: EcIpEt; NIcIpEta

Grammatical category: n.masc.

English equivalent: arrow

The Turkana arrow consists of an iron arrow-head called ecipet (the name for arrow derives from the term used to designate the iron arrow- head) with a socket for the shaft (asiin) from the ekali (Grewia bicolor) or engoomo (Grewia tembensis) tree. Arrow-heads are usually produced from worn-out tools or pieces of iron remains. The technique of manufacturing arrow-heads is similar to that used in the manufacture of spears: a piece of metal is heated in the fire and hammered into the required shape. At the end of the shaft, feathers (ngakopir) from an eagle (egole) are fixed, to function as flights. The feathers are attached to the shaft with resin (eminae) from the epetet (Acacia nuica) tree. The resin is ground and crushed and mixed with water. This natural glue is then smeared onto the shaft and the feathers attached to it.

Arrow shafts are carved by men using a wrist knife. The arrow-head takes the shape of the spear, and is therefore leaf-bladed. The arrow is generally plain and smooth, with no special decoration.

The ecipet arrow is used as a hunting weapon although in some parts of the District it is also a combat weapon. Bows and arrows are almost exclusively used by young Turkana boys or men, as women neither go to war nor hunt and therefore have no direct or indirect link with these objects.

The Turkana do not store their arrows in quivers. They are simply tied together in a bundle ready for use. Quivers (ngatorosia) are used to store ostrich feathers (see a-toros).

Turkana word: corogat (e- ngi) pl. ngicorogae

Phonetic transcription: EcOrOgat; NicOrOgaI

Grammatical category: n.masc.

English equivalent: finger hook

The finger hook has different functions. It may serve as a weapon, for gouging out an enemy’s eyes, although its main use, among the Turkana tribe is as an instrument for extracting teeth. Tooth extraction is usually carried out by an ekalokon - person who removes teeth. The finger hook is usually worn on the small finger. (compare with golu - e-finger knife).

Pieces of iron or steel wire are employed to make finger hooks. This task is restricted to male members of the tribe. The finger hole is referred to as akeju (lit. foot).

The removal of teeth is a common practice among the Turkana. Most people have their two lower incisors removed in childhood. This practice originated as a life-saving precaution against lock-jaw (more commonly known as tetanus, a serious disease that causes severe spasms of the jaw muscles, making it hard for the victim to open his mouth). Milk could be poured into the victim’s mouth through the gap in his teeth. This helped the victim survive the locking effect of this disease. Although the affliction is now rare, the Turkana have persisted with the custom.

Turkana word: golu (e- ngi) pl. ngigolio

Phonetic transcription: egolu; Nigolio

Grammatical category: n.masc.

English equivalent: finger knife

The finger knife is used both as a weapon and as a cutting instrument among the Turkana. It consists of a knife blade or “miniature knife” (Ocholla-Ayayo 1980), fashioned into a finger ring at the base. The finger hole is referred to as akeju (lit. foot) and the sickle shaped blade is called ekababait.

Finger knives are mostly worn by old men on the middle finger of the right hand. Pieces of iron or steel wire are used to make finger rings. These pieces of metal are beaten into shape using a stone or a hammer. The finger knife has no outer protective sheath and is used for various purposes, i.e. as an ornament or as a weapon for close quarter attacks (scooping or picking out an opponent’s eye. Alternatively it may be used as a knife or fork when eating meat.

It is nowadays very difficult to find finger rings among the Turkana. The British banned the making and wearing of these objects during colonial rule as they were considered lethal in close-combat fights.

Turkana word: kab (a- nga) pl. ngakabuo

Phonetic transcription: akab; Nakabuo

Grammatical category: n. fem.

English equivalent: bow

The Turkana hunting or combat bow is usually made from the hard wood of the edome (Cordia sinensis) tree. A leather strap (aput) or sometimes a piece of woven bark from the edome tree (auno) is fastened to the bow by means of a knot to form the bowstring. Bows differ in size; some can be quite large depending on the size of the arrows employed. Bows used for bleeding animals are substantially smaller and thinner.

The bow and arrow is predominantly a hunting weapon although it can also be utilised as a combat weapon. It is also used for bleeding animals (see e-mal for more details). As pastoralists, the Turkana regard hunting and the weapons of the hunter as the last resort of someone too impoverished to own large and prestigious herds of cattle. There seems to be a definite alienation between the ideology of pastoralism and the acitivity of hunting. The adoption of the bow and arrow may be directly related to a decrease in the size of the herds.

Turkana word: keat (a-nga) pl.ngakeata

Phonetic transcription: akEat; =akEata

Grammatical category: n.fem.

English equivalent: black walking stick

The akeat is a special stick used by the women of the Ngitengor clan. It is carved from the epeduru (Tamarindus indica) tree. It is given to a woman when she has given birth and she uses it throughout the breastfeeding period. When she stops breastfeeding the stick is stored in the fence of the goat kraal (Barrett, 1997). It is believed to be very dangerous for other people to touch the stick. The uniqueness of this stick for the Ngitengor clan is that it is carved from the wood of the epeduru tree, while other clans use other trees.

Turkana word: kwara (a- nga) pl. ngakwaaras

Phonological transcription: akwara; Nakwaras

Grammatical category: n.fem.

English equivalent: spear

The Turkana spear is made and used exclusively by male members of the tribe. The spear head (eporoto) and the spear shoe (erimoc) are made of iron. Iron pieces are bought and further shaped and cut using a harder chisel-shaped iron blade. The shaft (amorok or atinget) is usually carved from the ekali (Grewia bicolor) tree. The blade (etwel or angajep) is covered with a protective sheath (akuroru) made of cow’s hide. (The hide of the tail of a donkey may sometimes be used.) The spear and the shaft are joined with the resin (eminae) of the eroronyit (Balinites aegyptiaca) tree. The sticky substance is applied to the tip of the shaft and in the sockets, and heated over a fire. Spears are usually eight feet long and leaf-bladed.

In the past a man acquired a spear as an initiate. This usually came as a gift from the youth’s ceremonial patron-sponsor (Gulliver,1951: 129). This man, usually of an older generation, equipped the young initiate with the essentials for a Turkana man, i.e., spear, stool and sandals, from his own possessions. This close relationship between the two usually continued for life.

The spear is used for fighting, hunting wild animals (such as dik-dik and gazelles), killing animals during rituals (wedding and death rituals) and may also be utilised to carve sticks. The umbilical cord of a baby boy is cut using a spear, whereas a knife is used for that of a baby girl. Spears may sometimes be used to curse a person who has committed a wrongful deed (such as animal rustling or homicide). In this case the spear is thrown in a westerly direction. The Turkana believe that the victim will eventually die.

It does not appear to be a taboo to break a spear. When a spear breaks the broken part is substituted with a new one. It is interesting to note where the spears are kept at home. Unlike, for instance, the Maasai, who plant their spears besides the doorway, the Turkana keep theirs pierced from wall to wall in the house (Fedders &Salvadori, 1977).

When a spear is blunt (engingi) its owner may use leather sandals (ngajom) or a “white” stone (amour na akwaan). (A “white” stone for the Turkana is a smooth stone as opposed to a rough one.) The man spits on the sandals or the stone and creates the necessary friction to sharpen the spear by adding sand.

Turkana word: mal (e- ngi) pl. ngimalia

Phonological transcription: Emal; NImalIa

Grammatical category: n. masc.

English equivalent: bleeding arrow

The Turkana also employ a bleeding arrow called emal. This type of arrow consists solely of a shaft (asiin) from the ekali (Grewia bicolor) or engoomo (Grewia tembensis) tree and an iron arrow-head called emal. Arrow-heads are usually produced from pieces of iron remains and follow the same technique of manufacturing as that of normal hunting arrows. The iron arrow-head is inserted into the shaft and bound together with a leather strap (arukan) from either goat- or sheep-skin. Unlike the ecipet arrow, no feathers are attached to the bleeding arrow.

The arrow for bleeding animals has a particular significance in the Turkana culture, and indeed in all nomadic pastoralist societies in Africa. Men hold the mouth of the cow open (camels may also be bled) so that the veins in the neck can fill with blood. The bleeding arrow is shot with a bow into the jugular vein and the blood is collected in a bowl (atubwa). The man who bleeds the animals is called ekaguman.

Sheep and goats may also be bled by making a small incision with an arrow-head under the eye (nakiyo). Men are usually in charge of bleeding the animals, though in the absence of a male member, women are allowed to bleed smaller animals.

Even at the best times of year, cows do not produce enough milk to feed an entire family, so the diet of the Turkanas has to be supplemented with blood. Animals are usually bled in the morning before they are taken out to pasture or in the evenings after they have been milked by the women. The blood may be drunk on its own or mixed with milk (from the verb akitacarakan). It may also be left to congeal and eaten solid, or cooked and mixed with other food, such as berries and nuts.

Turkana word: sebo (e- ngi) pl. ngiseboe

Phonetic transcription: EsEbO; =IsEbOI

Grammatical category: n.masc.

English equivalent: knobkerrie, hurling club

The esebo is coarsely made from the edome (Cordia sinensis) or epat (Grewia bicolor) tree. Men carve the esebo using either a spear (akwara) or a wrist knife (abarait). The rounded end of the club is carved and protruding “knobs” are shaped on it. These protrusions are known as ngakarakarae in Turkana, and make the hurling club even more effective.

The club is mainly used in hunting wild animals, such as hares or small gazelles. It can also be used to kill goats and sheep which are struck between the horns with the back of the club.

The knobkerrie also serves as an excellent combat weapon.

Turkana word: selej (a-nga) pl. ngaselejo

Phonetic transcription: aselej; Naselejo

Grammatical category: n. fem

English equivalent:  fighting stick

The aselej stick is carved from the eureepe (Olea europaea) tree by men using either a spear (akwara) or a wrist knife (abarait). A piece of leather is wrapped around the bottom part (aabor) of the shaft (asiin). During fighting the leather part of the stick may be used as a grip.

Men can ornament their aselej with bits of clipped wire, aluminium or copper pieces (ngakwangae). Some fighting sticks are also studded with designs in nails, making them attractive to contemplate and photograph.

Turkana word: soogat (a- nga) pl. ngasoogae

Phonetic transcription: asOOgat; NasOOgaI